Cognitive Theories of Learning
Cognitive Theories of Learning
Information Processing Model
The information-processing theory is a cognitive theory of learning that explains how we take in, store, and retrieve knowledge in the mind. This theory became especially influential in the mid-1970s, although one of its foundational models—the Atkinson-Shiffrin model—was introduced in 1968. This model breaks memory down into three main components: the sensory register, working memory, and long-term memory. Each part plays a unique role in how we form and recall memories.
At the center of this system is something called executive processing, which refers to the conscious or subconscious decisions our brains make about what information is worth remembering. It helps direct our attention and energy toward things we deem important enough to store in our long-term memory.
Sensory Register
This is the first stop in our memory system. The sensory register briefly holds incoming information from our five senses—sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell. The catch? It only keeps this information for a very short time. If the brain doesn’t decide to process that information further, it’s likely to be lost. That’s why capturing attention quickly is so important, especially in a learning environment.
Perception
Perception refers to how each person interprets the sensory information they receive. Since everyone experiences and processes the world a little differently, we don’t all remember the same events in the same way. Our personal perceptions shape what we notice, how we feel about it, and whether we retain it.
Attention
Attention is our brain’s way of actively focusing on certain stimuli while tuning out everything else. In the classroom, grabbing students’ attention often means connecting the material to their interests or emotions. When students care about what they’re learning, they’re far more likely to stay engaged.
Working (or Short-Term) Memory
Working memory, also called short-term memory, is where small bits of information are held temporarily—just long enough for us to use them. The textbook points out something really interesting: “Working memory is so important that many researchers consider working memory capacity to be essentially the same as intelligence” (Nicholls et al., 2012).
Since working memory is limited (usually to about 5–9 pieces of information at once), it’s common for people to use a strategy called rehearsing—mentally repeating information to help retain it. Without rehearsal, that information can quickly disappear. As teachers, it’s easy to get caught up in trying to cover everything, but it's important to remember that students can only hold so much at one time. Being mindful of this helps us teach more effectively and ensures that students aren’t overwhelmed.
Long-Term Memory
Long-term memory is where we store large amounts of information for long periods of time—possibly forever. The textbook makes an interesting point: “In fact, many theorists believe that we may never forget information in long-term memory; rather, we might just lose the ability to find the information within our memory” (Kolb, Whishaw, & Teskey, 2016; Sousa, 2017).
Long-term memory is broken down into three types:
Episodic memory stores personal experiences, like memories from a birthday party or family trip. Semantic memory holds general knowledge and facts, like knowing the capital of your state or the name of a shape. Procedural memory is all about how to do things, like riding a bike or typing on a keyboard.
The way we teach can have a big impact on whether students retain information. When lessons include active involvement—like hands-on activities or discussions—students are more likely to remember what they learned. That’s definitely something worth bringing into the classroom more often.
There are also a couple of other theories related to memory:
Levels of Processing Theory says that the more deeply we mentally process something, the better we’ll remember it. Dual Code Theory suggests that information presented both visually and verbally is more memorable than when it’s presented in just one way.
Research on The Brain
Brain research has seen incredible advancements in recent years, especially when it comes to understanding how the brain functions in real time. Thanks to modern technology like MRI, short for magnetic resonance imaging, scientists can now observe healthy, active brains and see which areas light up during different tasks or experiences.
The brain is an incredibly complex, working in many different ways. At its core is the nervous system, which includes neurons, dendrites, and synapses, all of which work together to transmit and process information. The textbook explains it like this: “Neurons receive stimuli from the environment, translate them into electrical impulses, and pass them on across the synapses to other neurons or to the brain. Axons at the end of the neurons pass information to other cells” (Slavin, p. 137). In other words, our brains are constantly buzzing with communication between billions of tiny cells.
Several key parts of the brain help regulate everything from basic bodily functions to complex thoughts and emotions. The brain stem manages essential functions like breathing and heart rate. Just above it lies the limbic system, which plays a major role in memory and emotion. This system includes four very important parts: the thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala. And then there’s the cerebral cortex, the largest and most unique part of the brain, responsible for higher-level thinking like reasoning, problem-solving, and decision-making.
What’s truly amazing is that brain development begins almost immediately. According to research, “In its first 4 weeks of gestation, a fetus grows 200 billion neurons” (Nicholls et al., 2012). It is very incredible how the brain is able to adapt. For example, if a person is born with an impairment in sight or hearing, the brain often compensates by enhancing the other senses, proving just how flexible it can be.
One of the most important takeaways is that the brain’s capacity isn’t fixed at birth. Instead, it continues to grow and adapt based on early life experiences. What children are exposed to, emotionally, socially, and intellectually, can have a powerful impact on their brain development. This highlights just how critical the early years are in shaping a child’s ability to learn, think, and thrive.
Remember vs. Forget
Retroactive inhibition occurs when newly learned information makes it harder to recall things you learned earlier. On the flip side, proactive inhibition is when your existing knowledge interferes with learning something new. Then there’s proactive facilitation, which is when what you already know actually helps you learn new material more easily. Similarly, retroactive facilitation is when learning new information enhances your understanding of something you learned in the past.
Another fascinating concept is the primacy and recency effects, which explain how we tend to remember items from a list. If you mostly remember the first few items, that’s the primacy effect. If you mostly recall the last few, that’s the recency effect. This is such an interesting thing to keep in mind when teaching. It makes you think about how students are often more likely to retain information presented at the beginning and end of a lesson or even the school day, compared to what’s taught in the middle.
Memory Strategies for Teaching
When it comes to helping students retain information, two powerful tools are verbal learning and imagery. The textbook offers a variety of strategies that tap into these areas to support student memory and understanding in the classroom.
Meaningful Information
There are two main types of learning when it comes to memory: rote learning and meaningful learning. Rote learning involves memorizing facts or associations that may not have much personal meaning. think of memorizing multiplication tables or vocabulary words. On the other hand, meaningful learning happens when new information is connected to something a student already knows. Neither method is inherently good or bad; they each have their place depending on the context. The text also introduces the concept of inert knowledge, which refers to information that has been learned but is only applied in limited, often artificial ways, rather than being used flexibly in real-life situations. Ultimately, how much students can learn often depends on how much background knowledge they already have to build on.
Metacognitive Skills
Metacognition is all about “thinking about thinking,” knowing how you learn best, and being able to monitor and control your learning process. Metacognitive skills include strategies for learning, studying, or solving problems effectively. These skills can be taught and nurtured over time, and research shows that students who develop strong metacognitive habits tend to perform better academically. It’s an empowering set of tools that helps students take ownership of their learning.
Study Strategies for Students
There are several evidence-based study strategies that help students retain and apply what they’ve learned. These include practice tests, note-taking, underlining key ideas, summarizing information, writing to learn, outlining, and creating concept maps. The PQ4R method (Preview, Question, Read, Reflect, Recite, and Review) is also highlighted as a structured and effective approach for studying and understanding new material.
Cognitive Teaching Strategies
As educators, we must present material in ways that help students truly grasp the content. The textbook offers several cognitive teaching strategies that support deeper learning. These include making learning relevant to students’ lives, using advance organizers to help students prepare for new information, drawing analogies to connect new concepts to familiar ones, and encouraging elaboration so students can expand on what they’ve learned. These tools not only make learning more engaging, but they also help students retain information for the long haul.
Reflection
One thing that really stuck with me was the information processing model. It reminded me how important it is to grab and keep students' attention early in a lesson. Since our brains tend to remember things we hear first and last (primacy and recency effects), I want to be more intentional about how I start and end lessons to help key points stick.
Working memory was another big “aha” moment for me. Knowing that students can only juggle a few pieces of information at a time reminds me to slow down, chunk content, and build in repetition. It’s so tempting to try and cover everything, but this helped me remember that less is often more when it comes to true understanding.
In ELA especially, automaticity is huge. If students are still sounding out basic words, it’s going to be hard for them to focus on meaning. That’s why fluency practice is so important. I plan to continue working on strategies that support both word recognition and comprehension.
I also loved the reminder that meaningful learning, not just memorizing facts, is what really lasts. When students can connect new material to what they already know, it’s way more likely to stick. That’s something I want to bring into every lesson: making content feel relevant and engaging.
Finally, learning that the brain’s ability to grow isn’t fixed made me feel hopeful and encouraged. Every experience we give our students can help shape their development in positive ways, both academically and emotionally.
Overall, this research gave me new tools and a stronger foundation for planning lessons that are not just educational but also memorable. I’m excited to bring that mindset into my new classroom this fall.
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